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Research papers on Spaced repetition and memory

Recent and highly-cited academic work on spaced repetition and memory, gathered from Semantic Scholar, CrossRef and OpenAlex.

1. Optimizing Distributed Practice

   Nicholas J. Cepeda, Noriko Coburn, Doug Rohrer, et al. · 2009 · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · 294 citations

   More than a century of research shows that increasing the gap between study episodes using the same material can enhance retention, yet little is known about how this so-called distributed practice effect unfolds over nontrivial periods. In two three-session laboratory studies, we examined the effects of gap on retention of foreign vocabulary, facts, and names of visual objects, with test delays up to 6 months. An optimal gap improved final recall by up to 150%. Both studies demonstrated nonmonotonic gap effects: Increases in gap caused test accuracy to initially sharply increase and then gradually decline. These results provide new constraints on theories of spacing and confirm the importan

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2. A Trainable Spaced Repetition Model for Language Learning

   Burr Settles, Brendan Meeder · 2016 · Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) · 217 citations

   We present half-life regression (HLR), a novel model for spaced repetition practice with applications to second language acquisition.HLR combines psycholinguistic theory with modern machine learning techniques, indirectly estimating the "halflife" of a word or concept in a student's long-term memory.We use data from Duolingo -a popular online language learning application -to fit HLR models, reducing error by 45%+ compared to several baselines at predicting student recall rates.HLR model weights also shed light on which linguistic concepts are systematically challenging for second language learners.Finally, HLR was able to improve Duolingo daily student engagement by 12% in an operational us

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3. Spaced Retrieval Practice Increases College Students’ Short- and Long-Term Retention of Mathematics Knowledge

   Robin F. Hopkins, K. Lyle, Jeffrey L. Hieb, et al. · 2016 · Educational Psychology Review · 110 citations

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4. The effect of overlearning on long‐term retention

   Doug Rohrer, Kelli Taylor, Harold Pashler, et al. · 2004 · Applied Cognitive Psychology · 99 citations

   Abstract Once material has been learned to a criterion of one perfect trial, further study within the same session constitutes overlearning. Although overlearning is a popular learning strategy, its effect on long‐term retention is unclear. In two experiments presented here, 218 college students learned geography facts (Experiment 1) or word definitions (Experiment 2). The degree of learning was manipulated and measured via multiple test‐with‐feedback trials, and participants returned for a final cued recall test between 1 and 9 weeks later. The overlearners recalled far more than the low learners at the 1‐week test, but this difference decreased dramatically thereafter. These data suggest t

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5. Planning Education for Long-Term Retention: The Cognitive Science and Implementation of Retrieval Practice

   Douglas P. Larsen · 2018 · Seminars in Neurology · 53 citations

   Educational systems are rarely designed for long-term retention of information. Strong evidence has emerged from cognitive psychology and applied education studies that repeated retrieval of information significantly improves retention compared to repeated studying. This effect likely emerges from the processes of memory consolidation and reconsolidation. Consolidation and reconsolidation are the means by which memories are organized into associational networks or schemas that are created and recreated as memories are formed and recalled. As educators implement retrieval practice, they should consider how various test formats lead to different degrees of schema activation. Repeated acts of r

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6. Facilitation in short- and long-term retention of paired associates following distributed practice in learning

   G. Keppel · 1964 · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · 51 citations

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7. No Robust Effect of Distributed Practice on the Short- and Long-Term Retention of Mathematical Procedures

   Mirjam Ebersbach, Katharina Barzagar Nazari · 2020 · Frontiers in Psychology · 22 citations

   We investigated the effect of distributed practice and more specifically the “lag effect” concerning the retention of mathematical procedures. The lag effect implies that longer retention intervals benefit from longer inter-study intervals. University students (N = 235) first learned how to solve permutation tasks and then practiced this procedure with an inter-study interval of zero (i.e., massed), one, or eleven days. The final test took place after one or five weeks. All conditions were manipulated between-subjects. Contrary to our expectations, the analyses revealed no effect of distributed practice and therewith also no lag effect, even though the sample size was sufficiently large. The

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8. Implementation of a spaced-repetition approach to enhance undergraduate learning and engagement in paediatrics

   Keta Vagha, Sonali Choudhari, Amar M. Taksande, et al. · 2025 · Frontiers in Medicine · 8 citations

   Background Knowledge retention is crucial in medical education, yet traditional study methods often fail to ensure long-term recall. Spaced repetition, a cognitive learning strategy that reinforces information at increasing intervals, has shown promise in enhancing retention and engagement. While widely used in self-directed learning, its role in structured medical education remains underexplored. This study evaluates the effectiveness of spaced repetition in improving knowledge retention and student engagement in undergraduate paediatric education, offering insights into its potential for enhancing learning outcomes. Objectives This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of spaced-repeti

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9. Effectiveness of spaced repetition learning using a mobile flashcard application among dental students: A randomized controlled trial.

   V. Santhosh, D. Coutinho, A. Ankola, et al. · 2024 · Journal of dental education · 7 citations

   BACKGROUND Dental education in India predominantly relies on traditional lecture-based learning (LBL), which may hinder student engagement and learning outcomes. To address these limitations, innovative learning methodologies, such as spaced repetition learning (SRL), are imperative. SRL prioritizes active recall and can enhance long-term knowledge retention. This study aims to assess the effectiveness of SRL delivered through a mobile flashcard application, in enhancing knowledge retention among dental undergraduates. METHODS This single-blind randomized controlled trial (CTRI/2023/10/059347), conducted in Belagavi, India, involved 90 dental students who were equally distributed into cont

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10. Unveiling the Art of Effective Learning through Spaced Repetition and Evidence-Based Techniques

    Kshitij Narkhede, Ratnakar Patil, Aman Kasat, et al. · 2024 · IEEE International Conference on Contemporary Computing and Communications (InC4) · 6 citations

    This study critically examines the limitations of traditional learning methods, such as cramming, re-reading, and massed practice, which often result in suboptimal long-term retention and understanding. The paper proposes an integrated approach, emphasizing the pivotal role of Spaced Repetition alongside other evidence-based techniques. By exploring Active Recall, Desirable Difficulties, Elaboration, Interleaving, Concrete Examples, Dual Coding, and Distributed Practice, this research harmonizes cognitive psychology and neuroscience principles. The integrated approach outlined in the paper aims to enhance memory, comprehension, and problem-solving, catering to learners of diverse paces and a

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11. Spaced repetition and active recall improves academic performance among pharmacy students.

    S. Jayaram · 2025 · Currents in pharmacy teaching & learning · 5 citations

    Pharmacy students rely heavily on traditional learning methods like passive review of learned material and rote memorization that eventually leads to rapid forgetting and poor long-term retention. This is a serious problem in pharmacy field because students must retain a plethora of information like drug names, adverse effects, drug interactions, indications, and contraindications etc. Passive review of the study material by simply re-reading lecture notes or highlighting textbooks, creates a false sense of familiarity rather than true understanding. In recent times, learning techniques like spaced repetition and active recall have been widely reported in the literature to improve learning o

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12. Spaced repetition and other key factors influencing medical school entrance exam success: insights from a French survey

    J. Burel, Olivier Trost, M. Demeyere, et al. · 2025 · BMC Medical Education · 5 citations

    First-year medical candidates encounter steep learning demands when transitioning from high school to university. Spaced repetition– a method of distributing review sessions over time– improves long-term memory retention. This study assessed its effectiveness alongside lifestyle and academic factors in students preparing for the medical school entrance examination. In 2023, all 618 candidates at the University of Rouen were invited to complete a post-exam, self-administered questionnaire; 523 responded (84.6%). We collected data on revision methods (e.g., spaced repetition, reviewing archives of previous exams), participation in private preparatory classes and summer courses, lifestyle behav

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13. The Effects of Expanding and Equally-Spaced Retrieval Practice on Long-Term L2 Vocabulary Retention

    Kouhei Kanayama, Kiwamu Kasahara · 2016 · ARELE: Annual Review of English Language Education in Japan · 4 citations

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14. Enhancing application and long-term retention of clinical knowledge using an extracurricular non-credit course.

    Kimberley J. Begley, Kevin T. Fuji · 2024 · Currents in pharmacy teaching & learning · 3 citations

    BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Curricular overload in doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) programs is necessitating innovative approaches to support student learning. The purpose of this study was to describe the design, delivery, and assessment of a non-credit extracurricular course that reinforced foundational concepts through the application of learning in case-based activities. EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITY AND SETTING A 14-week extracurricular course, designed using principles of spaced repetition and interleaving in the context of case-based exercises, was offered to third-year PharmD students. Content focused on Top 300 and over-the-counter medications, brown bag sessions/drug utilization review, and medica

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15. ENHANCING ELS STUDENTS’ LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY THROUGH SPACED REPETITION

    Yelyzaveta Kryukova, Natalia Yamshynska, N. Kutsenok, et al. · 2024 · Education. Innovation. Practice · 3 citations

    In language learning, the method of spaced repetition has gained significant importance. It is undoubtedly a learning technique that can greatly enhance students' vocabulary and grammar acquisition. Spaced repetition allows to improve students' long-term retention of the language content they study enhancing language learning through active engagement, repetition, and visual aids. The effectiveness of spaced repetition as a method of improving English language acquisition was investigated by the authors of the paper. The participants of the research were students at the National Technical University of Ukraine "Igor Sikorsky Kyiv Polytechnic Institute." The experiment involved 76 students, w

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16. The Impact of Spaced Learning Strategies on Vocabulary Retention in Primary English Classrooms

    Adrian Paul Duffy Murphy · 2024 · Journal of Artificial Intelligence General science (JAIGS) ISSN:3006-4023 · 1 citations

    Vocabulary knowledge is a cornerstone of language proficiency, yet the retention of new words remains a persistent challenge for young learners of English as a foreign language. Traditional approaches in primary classrooms often rely on repetition within single lessons or short units, which may lead to rapid forgetting. This article explores the impact of spaced learning strategies, also known as distributed practice, on vocabulary retention in primary English classrooms. By reviewing key empirical studies, including large-scale meta-analyses and controlled classroom experiments, the paper highlights consistent evidence that spacing practice sessions over time produces stronger long-term mem

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17. Improving long-term retention: promoting distributed practice in an introductory economics course

    Daniel Diaz Vidal · 2023 · Advances in Economics Education · 1 citations

    This paper reports on a classroom experiment that tested whether increased use of a pedagogical approach known as distributed practice can lead to enhanced long-term retention of material covered in an Introduction to Economics course. In a distributed practice approach, students are encouraged to learn course material over a longer period of time and to keep coming back to the same material more than once. This contrasts with more traditional pedagogical approaches that effectively encourage students to cram for exams in a short space of time. Students in a class that made more frequent use of comprehensive exams across a semester, and students in a class that employed a more traditional as

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18. Anapolo: A Web-Based Spaced Repetition E-Learning Platform for Enhanced Long-Term Memory Retention

    M. Samonte, Yeshua Miguel Abrenica, Juan Miguel Caparas, et al. · 2024 · Proceeding of the 2024 8th International Conference on Education and E-Learning

    This study investigates the impact of a web-based application integrating spaced repetition on the long-term memory retention of law students enrolled in Criminal Law I. Employing a quasi-experimental design with control and experimental groups, the research demonstrates significant improvements in post-test scores (F (1, 27) = 8.5838, p = 0.006). The application, which combines systematic spaced repetition with case-based reasoning and competitive features, effectively enhances students' retention of legal knowledge. User feedback indicates positive reception, affirming the app's potential to enhance educational outcomes in legal education through innovative technological solutions. Future

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19. Design Analysis on the Development of an E-Learning System for Enhanced Long-Term Memory Retention using Spaced Repetition Approach

    M. Samonte, Yeshua Miguel Abrenica, Juan Miguel Caparas, et al. · 2024 · Proceedings of the 2024 7th International Conference on Information Management and Management Science

    This research introduces the design analysis of an e-learning system, Anapoló, a web-based spaced repetition e-learning platform tailored to improve long-term memory retention for law students. The study identifies the necessity for such a tool in legal education through a systematic review of existing literature and an online survey. Findings indicate that integrating spaced repetition systems, Case-Based Reasoning, leaderboards, and input-based assessments in Anapoló can significantly enhance law students' memory retention and learning experiences. As legal education transitions towards online platforms, applying spaced repetition techniques emerges as a valuable strategy to address memori

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20. THE ROLE OF SPACED REPETITION AND RETRIEVAL PRACTICE IN SUPPORTING LONG-TERM L2 VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

    Tuychiev Abror Khabibulla ugli · 2026 · SCIENCE TIME

    This article explores how spaced repetition and retrieval practice contribute to long-term vocabulary growth in second language (L2) learning. Drawing on recent experimental studies and meta-analytic findings, the paper compares distributed learning strategies with traditional massed learning methods. The findings demonstrate that learners retain vocabulary more effectively when they revisit and actively recall words over spaced intervals rather than studying them intensively in a single session. In addition to improving retention, spaced retrieval practice supports more sustainable lexical development over time. The article also discusses how these strategies can be integrated into classroo

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21. Adaptive vs. Traditional Learning: Long-Term Knowledge Retention -A Literature Review

    Amal Altahi, Chaitali Bonke, Khaled Alblowi · 2025 · Qubahan Academic Journal

    Adaptive learning, a personalized educational approach, has appeared as a substitute paradigm to conventional teaching methodologies. Opposed to instruction-based learning, adaptive learning prepares learning content in a way that corresponds to individual learner needs, increasing engagement and knowledge retention. The present study has been conducted to review the literature to evaluate the influence of adaptive learning systems on long-term knowledge retention as compared to their traditional counterparts. Real-time feedback, spaced repetition, and scaffolded content can reduce cognitive load and enhance the learning experience, as they are considered highly effective tools. Several stud

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22. Editorial Commentary: Repetition Is the Key to Adult Learning. However, Spaced Repetition Is the Key to Adult Surgical Skill Retention.

    Marshall Liberman, Clara L. J. Bongartz, N. Cavalcanti, et al. · 2026 · Arthroscopy : the journal of arthroscopic & related surgery : official publication of the Arthroscopy Association of North America and the International Arthroscopy Association

    "Repetition is the key to adult learning" is a critical aphorism that underpins many aspects of surgical training. However, the aphorism is silent on a potentially key aspect of surgical skill acquisition: spacing. Many students have the experience of cramming for a final examination, only to have forgotten the material the next week. This common knowledge acquisition experience likely has parallels in surgical skill acquisition as well. Spacing of practice sessions of the target skill can be modified to optimize long-term retention of the skill. Optimal spacing may be on the order of days, not hours. This finding potentially has important implications for the design of surgical training pro

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23. A Systematic Review of Spaced Repetition, Retrieval Practice, and Academic Performance in Undergraduate Medical Students

    N. Luu, Scott Severance · 2026 · Cureus

    Spaced repetition and active retrieval practice are learning strategies designed to improve long-term memory retention. These approaches target the forgetting curve, which describes the progressive loss of information over time unless learners actively recall and review material at spaced intervals. Modern learning platforms such as Anki and Quizlet use scheduled review and retrieval to strengthen memory consolidation and recall, and their use in undergraduate medical education has increased in recent years. This systematic review aimed to determine whether spaced repetition and active retrieval interventions improve memory retention and examination performance among undergraduate medical st

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24. Adapting DAS3H Model for a Personalized Distributed Practice Schedule to Improve Long-Term Memorization in Designing an Intelligent Programming Language Tutor

    M. Samonte, Renee Charlene B. Evangelista, Denise Nicole B. Marcelo · 2024 · Proceedings of the 2024 9th International Conference on Distance Education and Learning

    Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS) are digital learning environments employing Artificial Intelligence (AI) in the form of knowledge tracing (KT) to craft personalized learning plans for students. Learning the basics of programming language directs the students to write instructions to perform tasks. With this, educational tools like Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS) have been developed to aid educators and students. This study introduces the DAS3H model and Case-based Reasoning to assist students in mastering programming language by accurately identifying learners’ difficulties and Modeling Student Learning and Forgetting for Optimally Scheduling Distributed Practice Skills. Through rigoro

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